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BIOMECHANICAL ERGOGENIC MEANS IN MODERN SPORT
PhD. VLADIMIR PLATONOV, PhD., MARIA BULATOVA,
PhD. VITALY KASHUBA
national university of physical Education and sports of ukraine
Key words: biomechanical ergogenic means, sport, impact direct, classification,apparatus, facilities
In the modern technology of sport and sports-educational activities there might be emphasized some major directions in improving the athlete workability. First of all that involves the rational use of the known laws in biochemistry, physiology, physics, mechanics and various engineering sciences in the educational, training and competitive process. It could be complemented with information about biomechanical ergogenic means used in sport, in particular, sports equipment and sport apparel, sports facilities, computerized monitoring systems, gravitational biomechanical stimulators and exercise simulators.
The methodology of special biomechanical ergogenic means application in sport is based not only on the knowledge of existing laws of physics, but also on the knowledge of modern technologies in athlete training. In order to enhance the athlete's workability the specialists generally use simultaneously the knowledge of gravitation forces, inertia, laws of environment resistance and take into account biomechanical regulations of athlete's motor system a nd tactical-technical peculiarities of the competitive and training activities.
To orient successfully in various directions for the use of the present-day biomechanical ergogenic means in sport, it's necessary to know the athlete's body spatial orientation patterns, concerning various systems of coordinates and also the main factors that cause various movements of a human body. Such reasons are forces and their interactions – environment resistance forces, elasticity forces, friction forces and gravitation forces, etc.
Analyzing these or those athletes' movements one should know the peculiar properties of the structure and arrangement of numerous bone levers and rules of skeletal muscular system work.
At present in the process of elaboration of up-to-date biomechanical technologies, experts, as a rule, pay considerable attention to designing and development of sport apparel and equipment, gravitational biomechanical stimulators, exercise machines and sports means of conveyance. All modern ergogenic means are generally equipped with computerized monitoring systems which allow to process large information files and to single out there the optimal and rational subsystems.
The experts from many countries in the world are carrying out an intensive search to develop the optimal biomechanical ergogenic means which promote to improve athletes' workability. (Platonov V.N., 1992, Polischuk D.A., 1993).
Biomechanical ergogenic means used in sport could be classified as direct and remote ones (Table 1).
At present there are two ways of improving athletes' workability with the use of biomechanical ergogenic means.
First – decrease of environment's negative impact on athlete when performing the particular motor tasks. The process of formation and improvement of technical skill is ensured mainly by decrease of mechanical loading on bones and joints and reduction of environment resistance due to sport apparel of high quality, advanced equipment and engineering technical means of conveyance.
Second – training process has to be arranged in such a way in order the environment will acquire the new features that are not only optimal relatively various physical factors but enhance the biomechanical correct rational ways for the perfection of sports technique skills.
It makes it possible to ground biomechanical and to create new exercise simulators, computerized monitoring systems for training process running the application of which can influence different sides of the athletes' preparation.
Biomechanical Ergogenic Means of Direct Impact
Sporting equipment: exercise machines, sports apparatus/implements protective means, balls, or engineering technical means of conveyance used in sport.
To create the equal conditions for all competitors in all sports there are established fixed rules determining various specifications of the sports equipment on size, mass, and design. Sporting equipment should be created for convenience and safety as well as to improve athlete workability.
At present while considering athlete workability increase there should be singled out several following directions
Sporting apparatus/implements
The apparatus/implements are modified if, for instance, in a particular sport the aim is accurate and far distance throws. The distance of the javelin throw could be much longer if its tail is smoothed. Its aerodynamic qualities become better and the final output resulting from a clear aerodynamic effect improves. The rise in javelin throws results was caused by using free-gliding javelins. The change in javelin construction brought changes into throwing techniques and training methods, and, consequently, led to the better performance.
The progress in artistic gymnastics is mainly defined by: construction changes in gymnastics apparatus; the usage of extra equipment which allows athletes to make their performances more complicated, including difficult, unique movements and original elements and liaison moves that are so appreciated by judges.
The modification of the vaulting horse design, - its shortening, changing of in handles shape, - made the apparatus biomechanical expedient and convenient equipment. It enlarged the creative opportunities for the coaches and athletes in respect of elaboration and practice of new elements, improvement of their sports techniques, and use of anatomical and morphological body composition of athletes' capabilities in full.
Application of newly designed gymnastics hand covers (with a roller) for horizontal bar performance allowed athletes and coaches to elaborate great quantity of complex and original elements and liaison movements.
Table 1
Classification of Biomechanical Ergogenic Means in Sport
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These are the elements done with a giant swing, a vaulting over a cross-bar, various one hand giant circles, etc.
Some changes of the beam (soft, elastic covering was added), carpet for performing floor exercises (synthetic covering which increases greatly amortization and which allows work out and utilize the most difficult elements – double somersault, triple somersault, pirouette somersault, and etc.), different supplementary apparatus and implements – gym mats, landing areas – all these changes greatly improved the artistic gymnastics' technique.
While elaborating the implements and equipment for such kinds of sport in which the results greatly depend on the interaction between an athlete and a sporting apparatus (pole-vaulting, archery, tennis, ping-pong, javelin throwing, gymnastics, weight-lifting, ice-hockey, grass-hockey) it is necessary to adhere to some biomechanics requirements:
· ensure suitable or at least intercrossing range of frequency in the biomechanics system of vibration or in the biokinetic chain of an athlete while having contact with the implement and the implement itself;
· amplitude parameters of mechanic values during the interaction must not exceed physiological and biomechanical ranges (adaptation of biological system), under which the irreversible changes can occur (condition of an athlete's body mechanic tolerance);
· during the interaction with an implement one must create a special movement, biomechanical parameters of which as for planning athlete performance, should correspond to or exceed the relevant ones for this sport tendencies in changing movement parameters simultaneously with the growth of better results in executing competitive exercises;
· in team sports the gluetinelastic characteristics of sporting equipment must guarantee maximum possible speed of a ball, or puck at a given level of technical and physical preparation of the athletes.
Sporting implements are of great interest for researchers.
For example, in cycling sport a constant search of optimum, easy and reliable variants of bicycle design is focused on its main parts: gear change lever, crank, pedals, chain wheels, etc.
At the end of 1950-s, in pole-vaulting (track-and-field athletics) athletes began to use metal poles which differed from bamboo ones by their much more stiffness. All this led to the considerable changes in technique: the jump acquired its strong swing character; there occurred changes as for demands to the level of athletes' special training preparation and to their body constitutional peculiarities. The tall athletes became more successful in this sport. Appearance of metal poles led to the increase of the world and national records. But a 5-metre mark in pole-vaulting was already cleared with the help of synthetic poles. The qualities of these poles greatly differ from metallic ones for their elastic features – larger bend and higher catapult characteristics. These pole's features made great new demands to athlete technique, level of athlete's special training preparation, and influenced the methods of sports training which led to a new leap of results of 5 to 6 meter height.
Engineering-and-technical means of conveyance. Lately the designers considerably improved mechanical sporting equipment used as the means of conveyance for athletes in such sports as: bobsleigh, sailing, cycling, skiing and others. In most cases the scientists' attention is focused on the ways how to decrease the air and water resistance or friction.
In recent years sensational successes of the Ukrainian cyclists were to a considerable extent supported with close cooperation of coaches and athletes on one hand and specialists of the world-known O.K. Antonov Aviation scientific-technical complex on the other hand. There were created bicycle constructions made of coalplastics for different kinds of races providing aerodynamical and anthropological characteristics of every rider made that made it possible to decrease aerodynamical resistance and increase speed qualities of the athletes and their endurance.
In the second half of the 90-s of the XX century there appeared a principally new design of speed skating skate. In comparison with the casual skates the new ones made it possible to increase the amplitude of taking-off. (Picture 1). After some changes in athlete techniques the time needed for covering a skating rink lap decreased at an average of 0.7 sec.; and that's why it was naturally that at the XVII Nogano Winter Olympic Games in 1998 the world records at many distances were renewed many times, and sports results surpassed any forecasts.
Constant improvement of the design of new skates and boots promote further skaters' performance improvement.
Striking example of modern technologies implementation in skiing is the elaboration of new footwear in skiing. Thus, 'ALFA' Company manufacturing skiing equipment since 1931, created a new kind of skiing boots SNS (Solomon Nordic System).
Dual System – 'boot in boot' system, where an inner boot has 2 functions: it ensures ventilation due to the material 'Gor Tex' (synthetic membrane fabric, its pores let the moisture pass out – only in one direction – outwards), anatomic insole adsorbs the moisture and firmly fixes the foot to the sole of the boot preventing its rotation during the leg motion especially with 'skating step' and downhill run. An outer boot ensures the support for an ankle joint remaining a necessary range of motions at the expense of which there appears the ability to keep a ski longer (Picture 2).
In 2002 'FISCHER' Company designed a system of racing ski vibrocorrection - 'Frequency Tuning'. It is similar to a net made of special material which covers the upper layer and can smooth down the frequency characteristics of a ski, transforming negative vibrations into the positive ones (Picture 3).
Protective means for athletes. While elaborating and improving new designs of sporting implements, equipment and sports facilities in recent years, much attention is focused on the athletes' safety, especially in such sports which greatly depend on material and technical means of training preparation and competitions. In this view there is achieved a visible success in different sports; for example modern alpine ski bindings not only ensure stiff connection of boots and skis that positively influences the technique efficiency but also automatically releases an athlete's foot under overloading in order to avoid injuries.
While elaborating modern bindings, there the results of complex biomechanical researches were considered and implemented. It is known that the weakest part of the Alpine skier's leg is a shin bone.
Strength of femurs, their capability to resist against bend and twisted loading in general determine the design and adjustment of ski-bindings.
Much attention is paid to development of effective constructions for individual protective mean: helmets, shields and bandages etc.
The experience shows that a successful forecast of further development of sporting equipment, changes in competition rules and consequently operative re-construction of athlete techniques and preparation system are extremely important factors for providing effective performance in big competitions of separate athletes and teams. Every big contest can prove this tendency.
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Picture 1 - Design peculiarities and preferences of new skates in speed skating:
1 – design peculiarities of skates
2 – increase of take-off amplitude
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Picture 2 - Race boots: a) skating step; b) classic step
Picture 3 - Amplitude – and – frequency characteristics of ski vibrations
a: 1 without vibrocorrection system;
2 – with vibrocorrection system;
b: vibrocorrection system of ski vibration
Sport Apparel
In all kinds of sport there are certain requirements to sport apparel – from trunks for swimmers to full outfit of Alpine skier. When creating an outfit for athletes, specialists pay much attention to protection from natural factors of the environment or from injuries. Special fabrics allow athletes to keep the warmth and prevent from moisture during the training in damp or cold weather; modern athletic footwear is manufactured with the special balanced elastic sole and padding protecting from damaging factors etc.
Actually, all sport apparel used for competitions, is being modernized constantly in order to achieve better performance.
Sport apparel with regard to a kind of sport is being created for reducing air and water resistance, reducing gravitation forces, reducing or increasing friction forces or buoyancy.
Well-adjusted sports outfit gives similar effect to water resistance. The buoyancy increase gives a swimmer an advantage because the more elevated the swimmer's body in the water the less the resistive forces because the bigger part of the athlete's body can move in the air. In this case the energy expenditure is more economical.
During the past few years in swimming, after period of long stagnation, a table of world records was completely renewed. According to unanimous expert opinion this began to happen when achievements of scientific and technical progress were involved in training process. The most impressive effect happened with a sudden appearance of special fast swimsuits called 'Fast Skin' improving swimmer's hydrodynamic abilities and contributing to considerable speed increasing (Picture 4). Variability of swimsuits design and materials from which they are made allows every swimmer to choose optimum individual alternative according to distinctive features of a body type and sports technique. Special researches of sharks' skin structure were used for creation of cloth grain for the swimsuits. It is a well known fact that sharks can develop a very high speed in spite of very inefficient body structure from the point of view of hydrodynamics. The sharks' skin is covered with tiny ridges which cause water turbulence.
It was this turbulence that favors to water resistance reduction with high-necked swimsuit 'Speedo' up to 7,5% in comparison with another ones. It is very important that special cut of its parts provides natural movement co-ordination and muscles work of the swimmers who can feel the outfit like their 'second skin'. It is generally admitted that breaking a big numbers of swimming world records during recent years were due to the appearance of these swimsuits. For example, during the 27th Olympic Games in Sydney 13 from 15 world records were broken by swimmers wearing fast swimsuits 'Speedo'.
Picture 4 - Fast swimsuits 'Speedo'
The weight of sporting apparel can negatively influence performance efficiency in some kinds of sport, because the heavier sports outfit is the more energy expenditure for overcoming gravitation force it requires. That is why designers of sport apparel use modern fabrics and materials in order to manufacture lighter sport apparel. Rightly selected sports uniform can prove to be such an effective ergogenic means too.
Investing hundreds millions dollars in this industry, many shoe manufacturers, such as 'Adidas' and 'Puma' in Germany, 'Tiger' from Japan, 'Nike' and 'Reebok' of the USA, 'Salomon' from France etc., create their own research laboratories and institutes for production of more advanced athletic footwear. Many of these companies are sponsors of national teams in different kinds of sport. They employ experts in biomechanics and exercise physiology for carrying out scientific researches in order to create the best footwear for the athletes they support.
Reduced weight of running shoes should provide an athlete with certain advantage. This can be proved by scientific research results. One of the tested athletes had to run on a treadmill with agreed speed in athletic shoes of different weights and during this experiment there was measured the oxygen intake. As it was expected, the athlete who runs in heavier shoes had to take more oxygen than the athlete who runs in lighter running shoes, which shows that in the first group the energy expenditure was higher. It was calculated that energy saving amounts to 0. 28 % on each 28 g. of shoe weight. That is why if 140g. athletic shoes are put on instead of 280 g. ones, then during the marathon, the decrease of energy expenditures can enable an athlete to cover this distance in several minutes quicker.
Similar ergogene effect can be found in chemical set up of athletic shoes. In shoe making process many materials with different levels of elasticity are used to absorb a stroke force during a leg contact with a ground surface. A middle part of a sole is compressed and acts as a shock – absorber at the moment of the contact with a surface and while landing. Due to elasticity a middle part of a sole changes its surface accumulating some energy, which, when releasing, can favor the quicker leg movement in a take-off phase.
Athletic footwear can be created for providing the optimal friction which is necessary for successful performance in a particular kind of sports exercises. For cyclists it is very important to provide footwear with maximum grip between a foot and a treadle to decrease slipping motion of a sole, whereas a baseball player smoothes a shoe sole for friction reduction on a sliding leg during a hit performance. Footwear must comply with the optimal friction forces. In some kinds of footwear one part of the sole can be intended for prevention of sliding, another one must have smooth surface, for instance at the base of a toe, which allows twisting actions quickly (tennis or wrestling).
Athletic shoes must ensure limited impact of striking forces during landing (buffer); a sole support during off-flight type of vault; a sole direction during a final contact phase with the surface.
Given examples undoubtedly show that appropriate sport apparel can further enhance athlete workability. Elite athlete must be familiar with modern technological trends and be informed about scientific research achievements on the latest modifications in sport apparel and athletic shoes in a particular sport.
Many elite athletes must have appreciated technological advantages of sports outfit design. Companies or countries sponsored these athletes and provided them with samples of their products; understand that this is the best advertising of their economical and political prosperity.
In fact some types of sports outfit are created for particular elite athletes in respect of their special needs.
Sport Facilities
During the past decades sport facilities are built and equipped in accordance with the latest scientific and technical achievements.
In cycling the level of athlete performance is greatly affected by new-constructed cycling tracks the profile and surface of which favor better results.
For example, Vigorelli cycling track in Milan for the last thirty years was a favourite place for athletes breaking world records. When the new cycling track was built in Mexico at the height of 2278 m. above the sea level it resulted in a leap-growth of records in all racing track disciplines.
Appearance of a speed cycling track with wooden coverage built in Moscow in 1980 made it possible for Soviet athletes to improve their skills and ensured stable progress for them at the most important competitions for a good while.
Such progress became possible thanks to the skiing courses with artificially ice coverage as well as the courses with synthetic surface which were put into practice in different countries.
The preparation of skiing courses with the help of special machines greatly improved their density that allowed considerably sharp the movement technique and led to invention of skating step. In conjunction with invention and introduction of plastic skis, synthetic suits, etc., the movement speed was greatly increased surpassing in many times the progress in other cyclic events (swimming, running, etc).
The ski hills with ice surface as well as the use of the ski hills with artificial coverage created the exclusive favorable conditions for special preparation of ski jumpers and Nordic skiers all round the year. They considerably reduced the terms necessary to achieve higher performance and its further mastering.
Running, jumping, and throwing techniques were considerably affected by implementation of synthetic coverage for athletic arenas because their elastic-tough features greatly differ from cinder surface characteristics. E. g., there occurred changes in pace, running start speed, take-off mechanism etc. The use of synthetic landing places stipulated appearance of new ways to cross over the bar. The techniques and training methods were changed, the results were improved.
While developing the implements and sports equipment when great influence of supporting interaction on the movement result takes place (running, artistic gymnastics, acrobatics, long jumping, high jumping, triple jumping, team sports, walking, trampolining), you should keep the following requirements:
· frequency characteristics of the support should be established to decrease the joint and internal organs injuries;
· support elasticity should encourage the process of wave energy transfer from the links of support to the common mass center;
· support elasticity values should provide the resonance interaction between the athlete and the support;
· in the process of the support interaction there should be formed a motion the biomechanical parameters of which for the planned sports results are in line with or exceed the revealed motion tendencies of parameters changes alongside with the results growth of the competitive exercise performance.
Nowadays there have been making the intensive efforts to improve artificial covering of stadiums and sports arenas which could be more dangerous for athletes than the existing natural surfaces.
Biomechanical ergogenic means of remote action
Computerized monitoring systems in training process. While running the training process every coach has to process large amounts of information. According to the obtained results he makes decisions and realizes the pedagogical influence, that's why the conception 'running' is inseparable from that one of 'information'. However, processing the information we don't quite realize that the information can't be seen or felt, it is not material. This is only the relative abstraction nevertheless reflecting objective reality in our mind. At the same time information is a part of material world, information processes are objective and do not depend on an awareness or separate individuals. It can proceed from some objects and be kept (or transmitted) by means of any material carrier.
Lately in athlete training there was accumulated unfortunately too much information vastly differentiated in the various directions, objects and aspects. Moreover in any particular case the specialists use quite different methods and ways of work. This fact makes impossible to compare the information.
The managing decisions made on obtained information can not only prevent positive training effects but be in contradiction with one another and go against its aims and tasks. Unfortunately these things happen very often especially when we try to develop some motor skills without consideration of developing some sportive-technical characteristics or to the detriment of others. This happens because a coach does not possess the comparative information on the interrelation of certain motor characteristics and technique elements or some motor characteristics and others.
Information streams transformation in any monitoring system aimed to its work improvement inevitably leads to the information forms which make up the computerized monitoring systems (CMS). These systems provide the running function on the basis of acknowledgement information which objectively reflects the state of an object under running and managerial information that is produced by CMS itself with help of transforming information containing algorithms and programmes. The most important information in the CMS is the managerial information produced in most cases with the coach's participation. The ground for its production is the information on the state of different objects in training systems, its development laws objectively reflecting material nature and elements' interaction [Platonov Vladimir. N., Bulatova Maria M., 1992, www.skytec-interactive.com.2003].
The CMS key component is computer technique. It is the computers that provide the high rate of information processing, its transmission and transformation.
The main CMS advantages while their application in athlete training are:
· possibility to unite information streams of pedagogical processes in one integral functional system;
· to release a coach from many routine functions of management;
· to save considerably the time which a coach spends on the main procedures and activities for pedagogical control and management.
· To save the whole time of a workout in general as compared with a traditional form of its organization providing achievement of the same positive effect.
The use of CMS in athlete workout allows creating for athletes such conditions of sense reflection of reality owing to which they could more objectively and in shorter time cognize the inner laws of movements with a complex coordination structure inaccessible under common ways of organization of athletes' cognitive activity. A special organization of cognitive process of complex economical movements with CMS using in athlete allows creating the necessary prerequisites for analytical synthetic activity stimulation of trainees in order to direct them to the independent awareness of elements and movement laws to form the conceptions good enough to learn the presented exercises effectively. The CMS means allowing to optimize the sports technique biomechanical parameters can be considered as the biomechanical ergogenic means.
The training process can be organized only at the intensive basis. Its high quality must be ensured by appropriate apparatus systems. To optimize interaction of the human body mass and the Earth gravitation you likely need to register them in some a way. Registration of such interactions can be provided by means of tensodynamography and stabilography methods. Co-operation of tensodynamography platforms and stabilographers with computers gave new opportunities to analyze and program of interactions of the human body mass and the Earth mass gravitation.
Today tensodynamic platforms are very popular in the sports practice. The most famous ones are Kistler (Germany) and Ariel (USA).
Such platforms can be placed at the stadium tracks, under weightlifting platforms, taking-off areas while performing various motor activities. For example, dynamographical platforms can help to value biomechanical parameters of support interactions while performing running, walking, long and high jumping, ski jumping, diving, gymnastics and acrobatics etc.
Sports activities frequently require the human ability to keep quite economically and effectively enough the postures, to transform them keeping the body balance in space.
In sport there are found various static positions and postures by means of which the athletes achieve some results in their training and competitive activities. Such static positions include various stands, suspension, starting positions in athletics and swimming as well as in some other kinds of sport, shooters and lifters' postures. The significant role of static position and postures is proved by the fact that the fixation of such static positions is regulated by official rules of competitions (Picture 5).
Keeping the body's positions and postures is a complicated process of regulation and correction. A human body, from the biomechanics point of view, can be considered as a multi-chain mechanic system which consists of a number of non-deformed units. Such units are linked up with the help of joints where articular moments operate that provides the steadiness of a static position of the whole movable system. To estimate the conditions of the human body equilibrium the method of stabilography is widely used nowadays.
Stabilographic complexes allow studying not only the biomechanical characteristics of the vertical human body steadiness but also:
· to make a quantitative estimation of the human body steadiness and a system of body;
· to control the learning process of different kinds of equilibrium, for example, in artistic and rhythmic gymnastics;
· to determine the impact of training load as for an athlete's body steadiness;
· to carry out the professional selection of the most capable individuals according to the stabilographyc indices.
To register and analyze the static-dynamic steadiness of an athlete body during educational-training process there is widely used Delos Postural System (DPS-Italy) which consists of three modular. (Picture 5).
1. DEB (Delos Equilibrium Board) is an equilibrium platform;
2. DPA (Delos Postural Assistant) is an assistant to keep a posture;
3. DVC (Delos Vertical Controller) is a vertical monitoring device.
DEB is an equilibrium platform. This is the first and fully electronic swinging platform with visual feedback connection at on-line regime for an effective teaching and evaluation of dynamic steadiness. Taking the advantage of its exclusive swinging movement, the authors present a lot of various tests and conditions of work.
DPA is an extra device to keep a posture; it trains a person quickly even with poor coordination abilities and functional restrictions, reduces the time of teaching the body to keep vertical steadiness.
DVC is a kind of a screening device for the posture control, it records and visualizes on-line the amplitude-and-frequency oscillation of the joint center of a body mass, trunk mass and separate body's segments at sagittal and frontal planes.
During studying and training activities DPS improves coordination abilities and boosts the effectiveness of strength training, ensures athlete musculoskeletal apparatus injury prevention.
Lately the video-analyzing systems are widely spreading in biomechanical researches and in practice of scientific-methodical provision of elite athletes' preparation. Such systems allow using both manual digital operation and automatic one with usage of contrast reflection infrared markers and sensors fixed in the joints' rotation centers of major bio-units of athlete's body. The coordinates of the latter are identified by an analyzing system, are measured automatically and computerized.
Modern Olympic and professional sport makes high demands to all the elements of athlete organism complicated system. Under long-term regular training and competitions the athlete musculoskeletal system is exposed to great dynamic loading, that's why the difficulties on implementation of the up-to-date biomechanical control technologies of musculoskeletal motor function in a process of sport training become more and more urgent for coaches, doctors and athletes themselves.
Nowadays one of the most effective technical means for objective, operational and integral biomechanical diagnostics of functional condition of muscular-articular joints is the automatic apparatus complex 'REV 9000' of the 'TechnoGym' Company.
The technical features of this diagnostics complex allow registering in a quantitative form biomechanical parameters of big joints of human musculoskeletal apparatus kinetics – maximum forces' moments, angles of maximum force manifestation, speed, movement maximum speed, fatigue index, power and work.
Gravitation biomechanical stimulators
While investigating the prospects of athlete training improvement one can notice how poor are used those scientific directions reserves which give us the more profound knowledge about human body energy in particular about thermodynamics and biomechanics. The practical use of contemporary achievements at these sciences allow to enhance the quality and intensity of the training process and, also, to increase the athlete's work capacity.
To our mind, any process of directed improvement of human motor function can be essentially intensified if its strategy is based on one more fundamental biophysical phenomenon of the living substance essence manifestation – its abilities to accumulate, transform and spend the gravitation energy. This will considerably allow transforming the methods of a training process, coming nearer to its new gravitation technology, building up a cyclic system of athlete training on a more objective base, and using effectively the mechanisms of natural adaptation which are programmed in a human organism both phylogenetically and ontogenetically.
While considering the contemporary condition of methodology provision for elite athlete training process, one can't help paying attention to the rooted tradition of picking out from an entity of preparation system its separate variables (physical, technical, psychological etc.). At a certain extensive stage of the training methods' development such an approach justified itself to some extent. However, it's quite obvious nowadays when the elite athlete's training process must be converted to intensive technologies such a situation may only prevent the further progress of elite sports.
The main integrating factor in training appears to be the technique of those athlete motor actions which allows them to achieve the best performance. Both in technique and in material (physical) substratum of athletes' actions there are not only bio-kinematics (space-temporal) but also, and what is the most important, biodynamic (strength) components which mainly determine the outcome of all motor activities aimed at the solution of the tasks set. That's why it's obvious that physical training as a self-sufficient kind of training has no sense without its links with certain elements of technique. It must be directed to the attainment of all those physical (bio-kinematical and biodynamic) parameters of motor capacities which are regulated by the corresponding biomechanical characteristics of technique and which are, at the same time, the criteria of physical training performance for both athletes and coaches. The biodynamic strength elements of the technique's structure can't be, in its turn, realized without volitional (psychomotor) mechanisms of regulation of the athletes' training or competitions activity. On this background the gravitation and energy potential of athlete moves can be also realized owing to absolutely equivalent to its potential of the organism's inner energy which is provided by means of the smooth work of its systems responsible for motor function (cardiovascular, respiratory, discharging and others).
Picture 5 - The system for the control of the person's static and dynamic postures:
1 – indicator for the posture control;
2 – extra device for the posture keeping;
3 – equilibrium platform
For effective realization of a gravitation biomechanical stimulators idea in the training process in the middle of 1970s at the Kinesiology Department of the National University of Ukraine on Physical Education and Sport the researchers started to create different means designated to model conditions of high and low gravitation for an individual under physical exercising. So, in 1978, there was created the first model of special biomechanical stimulators. At the beginning of 1990s there was worked out an absolutely new gravitation biomechanical stimulator 'family', meant for athlete training and permitting athletes to exercise in shooting, basketball, handball, volleyball, football and so on.
In the process of sports training with use of biomechanical stimulators there is carried out a direct correction of gravitation interactions in athlete organism, in particular, in such main directions as:
- provision of symmetry in weight distribution of both separate body parts and whole athlete body relatively their body axes (sagittal, vertical and horizontal) and also maximum possible and available matching of joint mass centre (JMC) of the body with the center of its symmetry;
- providing the exercisers with such a posture, such an orthograd position of the body when JMC will be above the support maximum high and a deflection of its line protection on the support will be minimum;
- providing required geometry of weight of all athlete body and its separate parts (meeting tasks of the training sessions at present moment of time regarding a certain group of exercisers, their health condition, gender, age and direction of decision of motor tasks including possible professional ones) at the expense of: changing of body composition (its specific gravity), changing of muscle bulk volume of whole body, correction of body weight (reducing lipopexia in separate parts), correction of posture (e.g., curvature of spine column);
- working out programmes on changing of athlete body weight geometry for reducing unwarranted and waste expenses of their gravitation and kinetic energy during professional tasks solving ;
- working out recommendations on speed changing for whole body transition and its weight of separate links in the space for the most effective solving of different motor tasks;
- working out recommendations on rational use of movement inertia of whole body weight and its separate parts weight in order to economize different movement programmes and motor actions (at the expense of reducing all kinds of energy resources spent on moves, in particular, on muscle contraction);
- gravitation energy accumulation in muscles and tendons during athlete preparation for solving different motor tasks by means of their special training;
- changing of athlete body weight geometry with the purpose of their health preserving or kinesiotherapy after injuries, surgery and other reasons resulted in partial losing of motor function potential .
Picture 6 - Different variants of gravitation biomechanical stimulators
Biomechanical stimulators are used purposefully to change athlete body weight geometry during training process. They are presented as a system of weights fixed at the place of localization of bio junctions of body weight centers. Every weight fixed at one or another part is indicated depending on individual peculiarities of a certain athlete motor ability proceeding from specific tasks of the training process, whole weight of his body and performance biomechanical parameters of given physical exercises. These devices are called stimulators because their usage stimulates accumulation of resilient gravitation energy by certain body muscle groups.
The conception of biomechanical stimulators construction was created on methodical statements of biomechanics. The main point is to use muscle system reactions, which were phylogenetically and onthogenetically created in the human body for developing force of all main human skeleton muscles, upon natural gravity field stipulated by constant gravity forces.
Human skeleton muscles are known to be formed under influence of gravitation forces, connected with them inertia forces and body bio parts interaction forces. In the process of long evolution and individual age development a human body adapts itself to gravitation forces so that it doesn't feel their resistance because its bio parts weight is distributed unevenly. So all muscle group forces and conditions of their contractions are not equal either, they are in strong accordance with weight bio parts being moved by them. While natural moving, e.g., walking, running, jumping and so on, conditions of different muscle group contractions are different because environment resistance forces are different too. All this determines specificity of work of every muscle group and even every separate muscle. Besides, it is necessary to take into account that all of them during any motor act don't function separately but in system unity. It explains why it is not possible to develop differentially every separate muscle group without breaking co-coordinating human motor structure. However those naturally determined facts of muscle work that, at first sight, are obstacles for complex development of their force possibilities, are simultaneously served as a base for using the suggested method of training.
The given method is based on the usage of extra weights for creation of additional resistance against contraction of working muscles. However mass of every new weight used by an athlete is naturally distributed among appropriate muscle groups. It means that every muscle group has such percentage of weights as it usually has under natural gravitation while keeping the balance of one or another per cent of the whole body weight. These conditions can be considered similar to hypergravitation overloading under which they suffer from the same gravitation forces with vector directed to the Earth centre, without exceeding natural forces as for modulus. Under such conditions absolutely all human muscle groups get the loading. And it is natural.
Biomechanical stimulators of the designed construction differ from all analogues in the way permitting more effective imitation of high gravitation conditions during athlete training. It is achieved by means of especially differentiated placing in the suit cloth the special weights orientated relatively main body parts so that to create conditions of hypergravitation force resistance for the largest muscle groups during their active contractions. Under such conditions organism energy expenditure grows, physical impact is practically increased not only upon muscles but on all life-support systems.
Main positive and distinctive effect of biomechanical stimulators using in a given case is the possibility of athlete force potential increasing with simultaneous improving of their movement co-ordination quality, and expansion of organism functional possibilities.
When exercise geometry has been adopted immediately before application of biomechanical stimulators it can be recommended to exercisers to go through certain training cycle on methods of 'easy leading' the main idea of which is to master some kind of motor actions (e.g., running locomotion). The sense of this method is at least to create easier conditions for a person (e.g., by means of his body suspending above a support) in a touch with support. It gives him possibility to master maximum of biokinematic parameters of a studied action, in spite of temporary absence of strength- motor capabilities. We believe that such methods allow a practitioner to try all nervous-and-reflex mechanisms of management of formation of future motor ensemble of mastering action. If a process of study based on these methods will be successful then an athlete can start using biomechanical stimulant.
Depending on complexity of a studied model exercise, and on how, and on which level of possession of biokinematic structure practitioners attained, initial weight of costume should be selected. Practice shows, that the most rationally to use costumes with consequent weights 3, 5, 7, 12 and 15 kg. Another variants of weight gradation are also possible. Much also depends on biodynamical structure characteristics of set motor actions to reach which is the athlete's aim at this stage of pedagogical process. The program of weight dosage, entire volume and intensity of preparatory exercises are determined in dependence on energy consumption of model motor action patterns. Anyhow criteria of taught program fulfilment quality serve outer, well visible by coach parameters of biokinematic structure of athlete motor actions.
Performing training exercises in a costume, controlling geometry and biokinematic elements of the actions in artificial gravitation area exceeding the Earth natural one by module an athlete stimulates such an expenditure of inner energy of the organism, which is necessary to solve more or less motor task. After such systematic workouts the functional state and morphobiomechanical components of service systems achieve such a level and acquire such a nature which are necessary to solve concrete motor tasks established for practitioners in a process of learning a model exercise.
It is also necessary to add, that in sport training it is possible to place weights in other points relatively to co-ordinate system of the human body. In particular, some specialists think that weights are expedient to place in area of localization of general centre of body mass, in centres of joints rotation. Experiment shows that effectiveness of weight location, as a rule, is determined by objects and goals of sport training.
In practice of utilization of ergogenic means in sport the wave stimulators are very important. As the human body has particular elastic and viscous biomechanic qualities, wave process of accumulation of gravitation energy is constantly happening in it. Comparatively recently the specialists have paid attention to these wave processes and tried to use their mechanism for stimulating wave energy in the human body.
Muscular system as elastic and viscous environment is able to accumulate comparatively big volumes of a such energy and transfer it to other subsystems. Specialists widely use these phenomena in elaboration of biomechanical wave stimulators.
Wave stimulators work on the base of biomechanical resonance for active bio parts.
Essence of biomechanical resonance phenomenon is in the following: while upward oscillatory power of alternating current is acting on biokinematic chain (lower and upper limb) there can be seen an increase of amplitude of response of biomechanical link in current from 5 to 20 hertz [Biomehanika sportu, 2001, Laputin А.N . 1999]. On the base of biomechanical resonance phenomenon F.K. Agashin and his students worked out some principle schemes of wave stimulators – biomechanical devices for training and testing of athletes.
Biomechanical wave stimulators have great methodology opportunities of being applied for training and testing athletes of various qualification and specialization (boxers, football players, track-and-field athletes, wrestlers etc.).
Principle of wave stimulators work is in compulsion of athletes to alternate tension and relaxation of muscular nervous system, i.e. change its state in wavy way under different frequency.
Test participant can be immovable – can sit, lie, stay and also can perform different movements.
Wave stimulator equipped with apparatus for measurement provides with urgent testing of quality of motor act performance and it considerably decreases duration of athletes' preparation. It is for the first time when on the base of wave methods of training and biomechanical stimulators there was created a system of prevention, training and testing of athlete muscular skeletal system state [Laputin А.N. 1999].
Exercise machines
In the process of learning sport movements an athlete acquires a lot of skills. A great variety in motor actions, their different directions and specificity of performance conditions put a lot of problems for an athlete. Naturally, there is necessity of particular pedagogical approach to help an athlete to learn a concrete movement providing its specificity as well as specificity and particular qualities of skills which athletes need for successful acquisition of this movement.
To provide optimum conditions of formation of motor and many other skills while practicing and mastering sport movements as well as to increase athlete's capacity for work, different exercise machines are widely used. They give a coach an opportunity to programme and control motor tasks of various aim direction, and an athlete – to successfully overcome difficulties, stipulated by natural dialectical contradictions between his own motor capacities and target directives which an athlete's activities are forwarded to during training process.
There is accumulated a great experience of designing and usage of such machines in sport training.
Exercise machines make it possible to develop effectively motor qualities and abilities, to combine perfection of technical skills, technical and physical qualities in the process of sport training, to create necessary conditions for precise control and management of the most important parameters of training loads.
As far as by means of exercise machine we can modify different factors and phenomena of environment, interactions of various objects (including the human body) while practicing, they can be designed on the base of a variety of elements or process: mechanical, electrical, logical, informational etc. But the most essential thing here is what biomechanical structures of movement they allow to simulate and how the simulation principle agrees with objective reality of motor activity in a particular sport, how in general their application responds to given tasks of study or motor perfection.
All machines, regardless of field of sport/pedagogical activities and by what way they simulate, must have precise target direction. As every learnt movement, is a complex, multi-component and multi-structure biomechanical system, it is necessary that exercise machines' usage must provide effective ensure an efficient mastering any particular elements of this system. From a biomechanical point of view suggests it is expedient to mark out such most important elements of the mastering system of sport motions as geometrical, biokinematic, biodynamical coordinating, informational and some other structures. While you are studying and perfecting physical exercising technique you need pay great attention to some of these structures. In this case the exercise machines are of great help when thanks to which you can do your best, because such machines are a pedagogical means of concentrated narrow-directed impact.
Exercise machines – are apparatus or instruments with help of which there can be modelled in the training process different conditions of future real activity of athletes (for example, competitive conditions of sport exercises performance). They allow directly transforming energy of environment in such a way that it would get a form helpful for utilization by organism. From biomechanical point of view the machines can be classified: as for purposefulness – devices, applied with aim to develop particular motor abilities; technical means, utilized with aim to develop motor qualities (strength potential of different muscle groups); devices intended for monitoring of special motor skills formation process; as for directions (aimed to acquisition of movement geometry, biokinematic or biodynamical structure of movements); as for field of simulation with use of mechanical factors (different conditions of gravitational interactions of a human body), informational factors (logical schemes); as for the nature of informational exchange (with duplication of feed back, without duplication of feed back, with using of sound, acoustic and other channels of communication).
Conclusions
Considering the biomechanic ergogenic means from the point of view of contemporary sport pedagogical technologies one should emphasize some methodical difficulties while their analysis and discussion. There problems are stipulated by a considerable variety of the data material, great differences in the approaches of science-theoretical, medical-biological and fundamental physical knowledge of nature laws and laws of the live substance movements.
The elaboration of knowledge system about ergogenic biomechanics means in sports allows solving these problems and filling in the gaps in their enlightenment.
At present it has been already proved that elite athletes' high performance at major international competitions is, as a rule, the result of using the most advanced and up-to-date ergogenic biomechanical means. The progress in the development of these means is, beyond question, related to the general progress and modern scientific-technical revolution in science, engineering and manufacturing technologies.
The implementation of scientific-technical ergogenic elaborations into practice allowed not only sharpening significantly the rivalry technique in different kinds of sport but also intensify athletes' work capacity during competitions.
Abstract
The methodology of special biomechanical ergogenic means application in sport is based not only on the knowledge of existing laws of physics, but also on the knowledge of modern technologies in athlete training. In order to enhance the athlete's workability the specialists generally use simultaneously the knowledge of gravitation forces, inertia, laws of environment resistance and take into account biomechanical regulations of athlete's motor system and tactical-technical peculiarities of the competitive and training activities.
